International Symposium Evolution
and Diversity of Macaques: Research Progress and Prospects ABSTRACT Current situation and status of long-tailed macaques
(Macaca fascicularis) in Thailand Suchinda Malaivijitnond1*, Yuzuru
Hamada2 1Primate Research Unit, Department of Biology,
Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand 2Section of Morphology, Primate Research Institute,
Kyoto University, Inuyama, Japan ABSTRACT
Long-tailed
macaques (Macaca fascicularis) are the most frequently encountered
primate in Thailand. They are
currently considered at low risk for extinction, however, they are threatened
by habitat fragmentation or loss, inbreeding or outbreeding depression and
hybridization. At present, no
management measures have been taken and updated information on their situation
and status are urgently needed. We
sent questionnaires throughout Thailand to a total of 7,410 sub-districts, and received
1,425 (or 19.23%) replies. We
traveled to the sub-districts from which the positive replies to questionnaires
on long-tailed macaques were obtained, from December 2002 to December 2007 and found long-tailed macaques in 74 locations
which ranged from the lower northern and
northeastern (ca. 16 30f N) to the
southernmost part (ca. 6 30f N) of
Thailand. The distribution of
long-tailed macaques at present is similar to that reported 30 years ago,
however, their habitats have changed from natural forests to temples or
recreation parks. Moreover, the
troops tend to be over-populated. On average, 200 monkeys per location were
counted and some populations had more than 1,000 individuals. In some locations, they were regarded as
pests. In many places, local authorities
took short-term management measures, such as translocation and
contraception,. Pros and cons need
to be considered in the maintenance of macaque populations. Although many troops of Thai
long-tailed macaques have inflated population densities, some local troops
exhibited morphological, genetic and behavioural uniqueness that may be
important to conserve. Therefore,
management plans and conservation strategies should be established for
Thailandfs long-tailed macaque population. Key
words: hybridization, Indochina, Isthmus of Kra,
long-tailed macaques, over-concentration, Sunda, translocation, Thailand *Corresponding
author and request for reprint: Dr. Suchinda
Malaivijitnond Primate Research Unit, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science,
Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, THAILAND Tel: 66-2-2185275 Fax:
66-2-2185256 E-mail: suchinda.m@chula.ac.th Present
Distribution and status of Macaques in Vietnam Vo
Dinh Son1, Suchinda Malaivijitnond2, Shunji Goto3,
Cao Quoc Tri1, Nguyen Van Hung4, Le Van Hoang4,
Tran Cong Trang5, Tran Huy Vu5, & Yuzuru Hamada6 1Department of
Conservation Education, Saigon Zoo & Botanical Gardens,Vietnam 2Primate
Research Unit, Faculty of Science,Chulalongkorn University, Thailand.,3JAmami
Wild Animal Research, Inc., Japan, 4Highland University, Vietnam, 5
University of Agriculture and Forestry, Vietnam. 6Morphology
Section, Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Japan AbstractIn
a cooperative macaque research project (2004-2008), the members from Saigon Zoo
and Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University have conducted a survey on
distribution and status of Vietnam macaques in Central highland and its
vicinity (ca. 16o16 N. to ca. 9o11fN.). The study was
implemented by field survey and questionnaire survey for province level. A part
of the study was carried out by 5 students of University as their graduate
researches. As for pet monkeys, samples for DNA, morphological measurements and
photos were obtained. Additional GPS information was used for macaque
distribution. Capture and release survey was carried out in Ca Mau. The study
covered 150 sites. Among five macaque species occurring in Vietnam, Macaca
fascicularis is the most successful species having a wide range, from Son
Tra (16o 6f N) to Ca Mau southwards. In Central Highland, locating around 12oN. -15oN.,
we found this species at 40 localities, while Macaca arctoides and
Macaca nemestrina at 67 localities and at 65 localities, respectively. Whilst, only 5
localities for Macaca mulatta were found concentrating in the area ca.15oN
to ca.16oN. Rhesus
macaques having intermediate tailed- length between rhesus and long tailed
macaque were found. These ghybridh macaques occurred in Son Tra, A Luoi and
Central Highland areas. The populations in the Cu Lao Cham island, which situates
30 km east from Hoi An, also showed intermediate morphology between the two
species, indicating the hybridization.
Based on our analysis, we can conclude that gyellowh monkey reported by
village people is probably Rhesus macaque and the contacting or co-occurrence
zone of these two species is estimated at the area locating at ca.12o N.
to ca.15o N, locating east to the Truongson mountain chains. No Macaca
assamensis was found during the survey. Non–indigenous macaques
(confiscated or pet) have been released into the wild troops. At recreation areas or pagodas (e.g.,
Nui Ba Den where hybrids with M. nemestrina, M. mulatta, and M.
fascicularis were found) from two to three macaque species coexist in the
same group that consequently lead to be hybrid. Field study revealed that
forest habitat fragmentation have led macaque population to become isolated
each other, meanwhile persistent hunting have made them very timid. Deforestation
for resettlement, illegal hunting and trading of primates have reduced wild
macaques populations. Key word: Distribution, Present Status, Macaca, Hybrid monkey, Yellow
monkey, Central highland. Distribution of macaques and observed pet
primates in Laos Hiroyuki
Kurita1, Suchinda Malaivijitnond2, Bounnam Pathoumthong3, Fong
Samouth3, Chanda Vongsombath3, Phouthone Kingsada3,
Yuzuru Hamada4 1Division of Cultural Property, Board of
Education, Oita City 2Primate Research Unit,
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University 3Department
of Biology, Faculty of Science, National University of Laos 4Morphology
Section, Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University ABSTRACT
Lao Peoplefs
Democratic Republic (Laos) situates adjacent to China, Vietnam, Thailand,
Cambodia, and Myanmar. In Laos, primate
fauna is rich, and 2 or 3 species of slow lorises, 5 species of macaques, 4 or
more species of langurs, and 4 or more species of gibbons are known to be
distributed, but the exact distribution and taxonomy have not been determined. We, therefore, try to determine the
distribution of primates in northern and southern regions of Laos by round-trip
and interview methods. We
conducted round-trip survey three times between 2005 and 2007. Subject areas in the
southern Laos were Khammouane, Savannakhet, Saravan, Xekong, Champasak and
Attapeu Provinces, and those in the northern regions were Phongsali, Luang Nam
Tha, Oudom Xay, Luang Prabang and Houa Phanh Provinces. Using visual materials (brochures and
posters), we asked village peoples and rangers of
National Biodiversity Conservation Areas about primate species inhabiting the
village area. When we got
information about pet primates from residents, we also observed pet
individuals and collected samples (hairs, oral epithelium, or feces) for DNA
analysis under their ownersf permission. In the northern regions, we interviewed at 46
sites. Slow lorises (big and
small, Nycticebus bengalensis and N. pygmaeus), rhesus (Macaca mulatta), pig-tailed (M. nemestrina leonina), stump-tailed (M. arctoides) and Assamese macaques (M. assamensis), and Phayerfs (Trachypithecus phayrei) and Francois
langurs (T. francoisi), and two
species of gibbons (Nomascus concolor and N. leucogenys). In the southern regions, we interviewed
at 42 sites from two surveys. Two species of slow lorises, five
species of macaques, including long-tailed macaques (M. fascicularis), and four species of langurs, including red-shanked douc (Pygathrix nemaeus)
and silvered langurs (T. cristatus)
were reported. Concerning gibbons,
N. leucogenys was confirmed by the observation
of pet individuals, but distribution of other gibbon species was
indefinite. Although residents of
multiple villages suggested distribution of long-tailed macaques, we could
collect no real evidence for the distribution. On this symposium, we will present details of distribution
of macaque species. We observed 60 pet primates from the following
species in the northern and southern regions: Macaca nemestrina leonina, M.
mulatta, M. assamensis, M. arctoides, Trachypithecus phayrei, Pygathrix
nemaeus and Nomascus leucogenys. We will show their sex-age composition,
keeping forms and difference in frequency of observed species between the
northern and southern regions. Primatology in Myanmar Maung Maung Gyi Department of
Zoology, University of Yangon, University Campus, University P.O., MYANMAR Myanmar possesses a diverse forest
types with different climates that provide a favourable condition for various
fauna. Among these, diversified types of primates
as well as monkeys are inhabits. According to Tun Yin (1967), one species of
prosimian, five species of macaques,
five species of leaf monkeys and three species of gibbons are distributed
throughout the Myanmar. Forest Ministry of Myanmar and Wildlife Conservation
Society of Myanmar have worked in co-operation to study the ecology and
conservation of Hoolock gibbon in Ma-ha-myine Wildlife Sanctuary in Central
Myanmar. Collaboration project between Yangon University and Kyoto University
to study macaque about their current distribution status and evolutionary
process had been started in 2004 based on MoU. Primate researchers from both
countries have been conducting research survey in different places of Myanmar
and so far, quite a number of information have been collected. As the future
development of primatology in
Myanmar, studies on the monkeys about their ecology, morphology, behaviour and
population genetics had been emphasized to promote the conservation of primates and their natural environments. KEY
WORDS : Myanmar, primates, macaques, primatology, conservation *Corresponding author, E-mail: mgyi@iari.res.in A Research Report on the
Distribution of Macaques in Myanmar Toru Oi1, Aye Mi San2,
Nang Wah Wah Min2**, Tin Nwe2, Yuzuru Hamada3 1Kansai Research Center, Forestry and Forest
Products Research Institute 2Department of Zoology, University of Yangon, **Present
Affiliation: Nippon University 4Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University Myanmar
is one of the areas which might have worked as corridors for macaques to deploy
their distribution in Asia from Miocene to Pleistocene. In order to elucidate the history of
speciation of macaques and provide the strategy to conserve them, we should
clarify the geographical distribution of them in this country. To correct the deficit of knowledge about
the current distribution of macaques in Myanmar, we conducted interviews with
local people at 149 sites and visual roadside survey. We drove 8,530km along the main road in Rakhine Mountains,
Central Plain, Shan Plateau, the northern part of Malay Peninsular to conduct
this research during the period from November 2004 to January 2007. The results were (1) our information
extended their distribution of long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis)
northwards along the coastal forests to be connected with the information in
Bangladesh, and found that long-tailed macaques inhabited mainly coastal area
below 50m in altitude; (2) rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) had the
widest distribution both in vertically and horizontally among five species of
macaques, and new information of this species were obtained in Rakhine
Mountains; (3) we obtained new information of pig-tailed macaques (Macaca
nemestrina leonine or Macaca leonine) in Rakhine Mountains, Chin Plateau
and Bago Mountains, and found that they also had the wide distribution, but
tended to inhabit the area of more than 700 m in altitude; (4) we obtained new information
of stump-tailed (Macaca arctoides) and Assamese macaques (Macaca
assamensis) in Rakhine Mountains, but at a quite fewer sites than other macaque
species. Key words: Macaques, distribution, Myanmar, roadside
survey, interview Corresponding
Author, E-mail: toruoi@affrc.go.jp Feeding Ecology and Reproductive Seasonality of Myanmar Long-tailed
Macaque (Macaca fascicularis aurea) inhabiting
the Bayin Nyi Naung Mountain, Myanmar AYE MI SAN Department of Zoology, University of Yangon, University P.O., MYANMAR The
Myanmar long-tailed macaques (Macaca
fascicularis aurea) are distributed to coastal regions in Myanmar (Oi et al. in this symposium). A troop of long-tailed macaque inhabits
the isolated steep limestone-rock Bayin Nyi Naung Mountain (BNNM), Kayin State.
Their ecology was studied from September,
2004 to May, 2007. BNNM troop is
isolated from other populations by the Thanlwin River and its flood plain, and
human settlements, and the immigrants from other population were not found. They have the multi-male and
multi-female type of troop with members ranging from 30 to 50 individuals
during the study period. In the
troop, the higher ranking individuals tend to have the higher priority to
access the food resources and mating partners which is reflected by the
reproductive outcome. The adult
sex ratio was 1:1.2 males to females. The
animals were found to change food items seasonally from the total of 23 species
of plants and 21 items of provisioned food from the pilgrimages by focal animal and ad libitum sampling methods.
From the month June to October is the most natural plant abundant period,
because of the coincided with the rainy season. The BNNM troop shows the reproductive seasonality which
appears to be related with the natural food availability. The frequency of
mating behaviour reached the maximum from November to February that coincided
with maximum swelling of sexual skins in females. The birth season was found from March to July or August
during three year study period, thus, the lactation period coincides with the
season of higher natural plant food availability in the study area. The nominotypical subspecies of
long-tailed macaques, which is distributed lower latitude than the Myanmar
subspecies, does not show the reproductive seasonality. Thus, the seasonality in climate and
food availability would have influenced on the Myanmar subspecies (BNNM
population at least). The
geographical range of Myanmar long-tailed macaques is latitudinally wide, from
10 to 21 degree, and there may be variation in the reproductive seasonality,
which is the future subject. KEY WORDS: Myanmar long-tailed macaques, Macaca fascicularis aurea, Bayin Nyi
Naung Mountain, reproductive seasonality, food availability, birth season Corresponding
author: Aye Mi San E-mail:
ayemysan@gmail.com A Socio-ecological Study
on Rhesus Macaque (Macaca mulatta): Comparison of Behavioral Activity
between Urban and Village Groups. Mohammed Firoz Jaman
& Michael A. Huffman Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University,Inuyama, Japan Abstract We are
investigating socio-ecological aspects of two different free ranging rhesus
macaque troops, one living in an urban setting (} 80 individuals) and the other
in a rural setting (} 42 individuals) in Bangladesh. The urban site is located in Gendaria area in and around the
property of Shadona Traditional Pharmaceutical Co. in Dhaka, the capital
city. The rural site is located in
and around Bormi village, about 65 km north of Dhaka. This
research project, to be conducted over a 3 -year span, was started in April
2007. The main objectives of the
project are to compare and quantify the activity budgets of two populations of
rhesus living in different environments and to understand how activity patterns
correlate with seasonal and other environmental factors under these two
different conditions. Also, the
nutritional intake accounted for by the consumption of natural vegetation by
monkeys of different age-sex classes in the rural site will be analyzed in
order to evaluate the nutritional condition of the troop for conservation
purposes. The city troop subsists mainly on provisioned foods
(chick peas, bread and bananas) provided by Shadona authorities, as it is
traditionally believed that the monkeysf presence bestow them with good
fortune. The rural troop subsists
on natural vegetation and food items obtained from frequent crop raiding of
agricultural vegetable and fruits from the fields and market place. Here we
present a preliminary analysis of the data collected between September and
October, 2007 from the first field season (rainy season). Troop and age-sex class differences in
activity budgets will be presented.
Behavioral data was collected mainly by focal animal sampling, each
session lasting for 10-min. A
total of 370 hours of observation was made (2220 focal samples), distributed
equally across each age/sex class in both troops. To date we have also recorded and collected 15 preferred
plant food items, processed and awaiting nutritional analysis. A brief outline of the research on
Bangladeshi macaques will also be presented. Mitochondrial
DNA Diversity in Rhesus Macaques of Bangladesh Yoshi Kawamoto1, Mohammed M.
Feeroz2 & Md. Kamrul Hasan2 1Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Inuyama, Aichi, Japan 2Department of Zoology, Jahangirnagar
University, Savar, Dhaka, Bangladesh Abstract
Rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) are found both
in the natural habitat and inside human settlements in Bangladesh. Six populations are found in urban
areas within human settlements of the country by 50 to 300km from each other
and the number of groups in these populations varies from one to four. A total of 176 groups are recorded in
the natural forested areas of the country. The southeastern region supports the highest number of
groups while central part supports the lowest. Overall group size of rhesus
macaques in natural habitat varies from 10 to 78 (mean=30.9}10.8, n=176). The sex ratio of adult males and
females is higher and that between adults and immature is lower in groups in
their natural habitats than those of groups found in urban areas. Molecular variation of
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) was investigated for rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) of Bangladesh using DNA
samples obtained from feces.
Partial sequence (583-599 bps) of mtDNA containing the second variable
region of the D-loop was compared for 39 individuals from five localities in
the country. A total of seven
haplotypes were detected with substitutional or insertion/deletion
mutations. They contained a unique
polymorphism of pentanucleotide short tandem repeats (STRs). There were at least four different
length types from two to five repeats of the unit nucleotide. One site of substitution and one site
of single nucleotide insertion/deletion were also involved in the
polymorphism. The mutation hot
spots of the STR polymorphism were located between the first and second conserved
sequence blocks (CSB1 and CSB2) as observed previously in some other
mammals. Geographical distribution of the STR polymorphism
revealed local differences where the northeastern population was polymorphic
with three STR haplotypes but other local populations were simply monomorphic
with a single STR haplotype.
Molecular phylogenetic analysis with reported sequences outside
Bangladesh indicated low substitution diversity of mtDNA in Bangladesh. Clustering results suggested close
relationship to India and divergence from Laos and China. Current
trends in macaque research in Taiwan Hsiu-hui
Su Institute of Wildlife Conservation National Pingtung University of Science
and Technology ABSTRACT@Macaque
research in Taiwan was launched since the 70s to examine their physiology for
medical purposes. As an endemic species, the Taiwanese macaque (Macaca cyclopis) drew tremendous
attention when researchers in Taiwan started to make effort on understanding
wildlife in their natural habitats in the 80s. It is important to investigate
the behavioral and ecological patterns of the Taiwanese macaque in order to
understand how this wide-spread non-human primate interacts with its
environment and what ecological role they play in natural ecosystems in Taiwan.
In addition, increasing incidents of human-macaque conflict make primate
research essential to achieve the coexistence of humans and macaques.
Behavioral and ecological patterns have been
widely investigated in different groups inhabited at different sites. Food
items of the macaque were collected, and their ranging pattern was suggested to
be related the distribution of food trees in space. Fruits are the primary food
resource of the macaques. It has been suggested that the macaque is the
principle seed disperser of three Lauraceae trees which predominate in the
low-altitude forest. Thus, the macaque is considered to play an important
ecological role in the forest ecosystem. The social interactions and social
relationship were investigated in a long-term study on a wild group, on which
the association between kinship and social dominance, feeding activities, and
social interactions were examined. This long-term study enables us to assess
how various ecological factors and social factors affect female reproductive
success in the Taiwanese macaque. The increased spatial proximity of humans and macaques in recent years accelerates the level of conflict between humans and macaques. Crop raiding by macaques and the cost of crop raiding to farmers have been estimated in the central part of Taiwan. Specific study has been conducted to investigate the ranging pattern and utilization on orchards by macaque groups living in a particular region where the crop raiding was severe. It is found that unregulated provisioning influences behavior, ecology and health of the macaques. These studies might contribute to resolving the increasing conflict between humans and macaques. We are on the process of revealing the
ecological role that the Taiwanese macaque play in the forest ecosystem.
However, more long-term studies on different groups inhibited at sites varied
in altitudes, latitudes and/or habitat types are needed to comprehend our
understanding of this species. Key words: primate research, Macaca cyclopis, ecological role, social interaction, conflict Distribution
and sub-species morphological differences in three primate species of Sri Lanka
(Macaca sinica, Semnopithecus priam, Trachypithecus vetulus). Charmalie AD Nahallage & Michael A. Huffman
Primate
Research Institute, Kyoto University, Inuyama, Aichi, Japan Abstract Sri Lanka has four primate
species, the toque macaque (Ms), gray
langur (Sp), purple-faced langur (Tv) and slender loris. Little detailed
information on the current distribution and conservation status of these
species is known. Furthermore, the
relationship between geographical distribution and sub-speciation of these
species remains to be studied in detailed. The main objective of our
on-going study, conducted since 2003, is to up-date the approximate
distribution of each of these species to the sub-species level. The census is being conducted using
multi-lingual / picture questionnaires distributed throughout the country by
students of the University of Sri Jayawardenepura, and University of Uva. In addition, questionnaires were
distributed to all the National Parks in the country and extensive surveys have
been conducted by the authors, interviewing local inhabitants and directly
observing populations at selected sites across the country. Three extensive surveys were
conducted so far in 5 provinces covering the lowland, central, highland dry and
wet zones. Ms have the widest distribution both in the dry and wet zones. Sp
are distributed mainly in the northern and southern dry zones while Tv are distributed in the lowland wet
and dry zone and the highlands.
Mixed species grouping were noted for Ms and Sp in the southern
dry zones. To determine the morphological
differences between the sub-species of these three species, photographic
records are being collected. Thus
far, during three field visits to Sri Lanka between 2004 and 2007 this work has
revealed that Ms in lowland dry zones
have lighter body and tail color with relatively short head crown hair compared
to Ms in the central regions where
fur is dark brown to red and tails are black. Highland Ms are
lighter in body and tail color than the central ones and have the largest body
size and longest head crown hair. Tv in the lowland wet and dry zones have
a white rump patch and are smaller in size compared to highland Tv, who without a rump patch have both
longer body fur and cheek hairs.
For Sp, no clear-cut
morphological differences could be found other than that of more whitish body
fur color of those in the southern lowland dry zone. In addition to morphological
descriptions of sub-species level variation, we have begun collecting fecal
samples to evaluate these morphological differences at the genetic level to
verify or refute their presumed sub-species status. However, currently due to the difficulties of taking fecal
samples out of the country, this work is still at the collection stage. We have plans to build on the
infrastructure and faculty skills at the University of Sri Jayawardenepura so
that this work can be done in-situ in the future. Demography,
Ecology, Behaviour and Conservation of Indian Macaques Anindya
Sinha National Institute of Advanced Studies, Indian Institute of Science Campus, Bangalore, India Nature Conservation Foundation, Mysore,
India Abstract Located strategically at the
junction of the Palearctic and the Indomalayan biogeographic realms, India
harbours sixteen primate species, including two lorises, eight macaques, five
langurs and a gibbon. There have,
however, been very few long-term studies on these species and the current
status of most of their populations largely remains unknown. We have been involved, over the last
fourteen years, in investigating the demography, ecology, behaviour, genetics
and conservation of seven of the eight Indian macaque species, namely the bonnet
macaque M. radiata, liontailed macaque M. silenus, rhesus macaque
M. mulatta, Assamese macaque M. assamensis, pigtailed macaque M.
leonina, stumptailed macaque M. arctoides and the Arunachal macaque M.
munzala. We were, in fact,
responsible for the discovery of the Arunachal macaque, a new species from
northeastern India, in 2005. Some
of our current research has been investigating the demography, social
behaviour, cognition and culture in bonnet macaques of southern India; the
ecology and conservation of liontailed macaques in southwestern India; the
community ecology and conservation of five primate species in northeastern
India and the population genetics of the sinica group of macaques. The social structure and behavioural
ecology of several of these macaques appear to have been influenced by their
close proximity to human populations over the last centuries. Although our studies demonstrate the
behavioural and social plasticity of many of these species that face rapid
changes in their environment, they also highlight the socioecological problems
that their populations are forced to confront as they increasingly interact
with burgeoning human populations. Significance of Demonstrating the Intra- and/or
Inter-species Differences in Biomedical Research Using Macaques as Experimental
Models Keiji TERAO Tsukuba
Primate Research Center, National Institute of Biomedical Innovation, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan Abstract The fundamental process of animal experimentation involves the demonstration of biological response of laboratory animals induced by various experimental treatments. The history of establishing modern laboratory animals is the process of minimizing the genetic variation in a population because host reaction to experimental treatment must be affected by genetic factor(s) of an individual animal. The efforts of inbreeding or maintaining a closed colony of laboratory rodents resulted in the establishment of various strains with different genetic backgrounds. Once various strains are established, searching for the most susceptible or resistant strain to a particular experimental treatment becomes important and is an effective step in clarifying the factor(s) that causes a difference in biological response. That is the use of inter-species difference. Since the first breeding station
of laboratory primates was established in Sukumi, Soviet Union, in 1927, more
than 100 breeding colonies were established and they maintained hundreds of
thousands of laboratory primates belonging to more than 40 different species by
the end of 20th century.
Among them, macaque monkey species have become the most commonly used
laboratory primate and form the largest population in breeding colonies. Well-organized and large-scale breeding
stations have maintained these colonies through successive generations (without
introduction of feral individuals) by paying attention to the genetic
management of populations to avoid inbreeding and to maintain genetic variation
within breeding populations. These
efforts make it possible to establish glaboratory primate STRAINSh with
different genetic backgrounds under the same environmental condition. However, there are few trials to
demonstrate the intra- and/or inter-species differences among macaque species. Here, I would like to show the
following intra- and inter-species difference among macaque species that gave
us important information about pathogenesis as well as host defense mechanism
for the development of novel vaccines against infectious diseases. 1) The intra-
and inter-species difference in the susceptibility to Human Immunodeficiency
Virus (HIV) and Simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIV): It
is a well-known inter-species difference that pig-tailed macaques are the most
susceptible macaque species to both HIV and SIV. Rhesus macaques are more susceptible to SIV than cynomolgus
monkeys. Indian rhesus are more susceptible to SIV than Chinese
rhesus (intra-species difference).
2) The
inter-species difference in the susceptibility to the monkey malaria parasite (Plasmodium coatneyi): Both
Japanese macaques and rhesus macaques are susceptible, but cynomolgus macaques
are resistant to monkey malaria parasite infection. The pathology is more severe in Japanese macaques than
rhesus macaques. Genetic Diversity of Macaque
Colonies at Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University and the Prospects for
Laboratory Use Hiroyuki TanakaPrimate Research Institute, Kyoto
University, Japan Primate
research Institute, Kyoto University (KUPRI) maintains breeding colonies of
Japanese (Macaca fuscata) and rhesus
(M. mulatta) macaques for various
biological and behavioral research.
Four groups of M. fuscata
(Takahama, Wakasa A and B, and Arashiyama) and two groups of M. mulatta (India and China) are kept in
enclosure as separate colonies to maintain genetic characteristics of their
localities of origin. Each colony
has multi-male and multi-female social organization consisting of 30 to 50
individuals. More than 30 years
have passed since these colonies were established.@I perform a population
genetic study for these macaque colonies, with the goal to answer three
questions: 1) How has genetic diversity changed from the time of establishment
to present? 2) How is an increase of inbreeding? 3) Consequently, is there any
effect of inbreeding on the health or reproduction capacity of these
colonies? For that purpose, I
conducted microsatellite genotyping for all the members of each colony to
quantify genetic diversity of each group, to test their paternity, and to
confirm all mother-infant records.
In addition, microsatellite genotyping of individuals that were removed
from the group because of use in the laboratory or for health reason are in
progress to construct the pedigrees over 30 years history of the colonies. In
this presentation, I will show preliminary results of the study on macaque
colonies at KUPRI, with special reference to genetic structure of the groups of
M. fuscata and M. mulatta by analyzing 15 loci of autosomal microsatellite
DNA. Mean heterozygosity (H), one of the indices of genetic
diversity, was estimated to be 0.598 to 0.657 and 0.606 to 0.706 for the groups
of M. fuscata and M. mulatta, respectively. Comparing this to previous studies
using similar set of markers, the level of H
for the group of M. fuscata at KUPRI
was comparable to the wild troops of this species, such as Nikko, Hagachi,
Tsubaki, Katsuyama and Koshima (0.559-0.646; Shotake and Yamane 2002). The
amount of genetic differentiation among these colony groups and other
population genetic parameters will be also shown. Finally, I will discuss importance of the macaques with
known pedigree and comparative experiment using individuals with different
origin in biological study using nonhuman primates. History and Current Condition of Hybridization between Taiwanese and Japanese Macaques
in Wakayama, Japan Kei ShiraiWildlife
Management Office Inc., Japan A hybrid population of Japanese
and Taiwanese macaques lives near a large native population of Japanese
macaques in Wakayama Prefecture. The origin of this population is from a group
of Taiwanese macaques that escaped from small private zoo in 1955. We heard
that the number of monkeys at the zoo was 10-30 before they escaped. There is an abundance of food
such as acorns, bamboo, Unshu oranges, and the area is warm. Taiwanese macaques
were able to settle there and their numbers increased in these favorable
conditions. The Wakayama Prefecture Government
and Wakayama Taiwanese macaque Working Group carried out a census six times and
conducted a population transition simulation. Two social groups of
approximately 200 animals in total were observed in 1999. Four social groups of nearly 270
animals in total were estimated in 2003. The Wakayama Prefecture Government
has begun a program to prevent hybridization in native populations of Japanese
macaques, and captured and removed approximately 90% of the hybrid animals from
2002 to the present. Three social groups of 30(-50) in
total were observed in 2006. The remnants of the hybrid population include 7
females who have been sterilized by surgery. Now, we have two grave matters: (1)
Decline of capture efficiency, and (2)
Difference of census (counting the remnants). Genetic Monitoring for Preventing Hybridization between Native and Exotic
Macaque Species in Japan Yoshi Kawamoto@@ Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Inuyama, Aichi, Japan Abstract
Adverse effects on the ecosystem
caused by exotic species have evoked controversy in Japan. Prevention and removal of those effects
on the ecosystem caused by introduced exotic species through human activity
were declared in the gInvasive Alien Species Acth enacted by the government in 2004. The Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata), an endemic primate
species, has drawn special attention because of its hybridization with closely
related species brought and released by humans in the country. Invasion by exotic macaque species has been monitored by genetic assessment with molecular markers as well as direct observation and radio tracking. Application of sex-specific markers such as maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and paternally inherited Y-chromosomal DNA have significant roles in analyzing the causes and effects of the man-made change. Species specific nuclear DNA markers are also important to evaluate the degree of hybridization. There are at least three sites in Japan where
hybridization of feral groups of exotic macaques with Japanese macaques were
confirmed. All cases seem to be initiated
by adult male transfer from Japanese macaques to the exotic species group. For Taiwanese and rhesus macaques,
admixture of gene pools with Japanese macaques progresses without significant
deleterious affects on reproduction, suggesting the lack of a postzygotic
isolation mechanism between those species. However, the degrees of hybridization vary among study sites
and transfer of exotic genes to Japanese macaques is rarely known except a case
between rhesus and Japanese macaques in Chiba prefecture. Based on government policy, genetic monitoring is used
to prevent the introduction of exotic genes into the native population. However, phylogenetic proximity between
related species obscures their difference, mainly due to the scarcity of
diagnostic markers and diversity within species. I will introduce how the monitoring is designed and used in
management programs in Japan. Morphological
Assessment of Taiwanese-Japanese Macaque Hybrids in Wakayama Prefecture, Japan Yuzuru HAMADA, Ayumi
YAMAMOTO, Yutaka KUNIMATSU, & Toshio MOURI Morphology Section,
Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University One troop of Taiwanese macaques (Macaca cyclopis) was released from a menagerie, and hybridized with native Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) in Wakayama Prefecture. There are already hybrids of F1, F2 and possibly more, with various combinations of mating. The Prefectural Government carried out elimination of Taiwanese and hybrid macaques. The working group was set up in 2003 to assess and describe the state of hybridization. We assessed their morphology at the time of autopsy and on skeletal specimens. Since Taiwanese and Japanese macaques are phylogenetically close to one another, their morphologies are also similar, making assessment of hybridization from morphology difficult. However, the species difference should be found in the head, teeth, and tail. The capturing was started in March 2003, and 338 Taiwanese and supposed hybrid individuals including fetuses, have been caught and autopsied. The skeletal specimens were then prepared. Firstly, we will summarize the morphological differences in the skull and mandible found between pure Taiwanese (Mc) and Japanese macaques (Mf). Mc tends to have smaller skulls, as shown by the average maximum head length; 114.6 (5.39 mm, SD; males) and 110.4 (2.40; females) in Mc and 133.1 (5.89; males) and 119.4 (4.93; females) in Mf (data from Fooden, 2006). As for shape differences, canonical discriminant analysis using 17 craniometric traits showed that Mc and Mf could be separated by the orbital width (Mc < Mf). Frequencies of cranial non-metric traits also showed species differences, but not necessarily decisively; e.g., the average numbers of canalis hypoglossalis were 1.30 (0.46) in Mc and 1.72 (0.60) in Mf, those of canalis suborbitalis were 3.80 (0.81) in Mc and 3.33 (0.93) in Mf, etc. Secondly, dental sizes were compared between the two species. Mc has smaller teeth in general. However, Mc has proportionally larger canines (upper and lower) and mesial lower premolars, and on the other hand, smaller molars, especially M2 and M3. Thirdly, tail length and caudal vertebrae were inspected in hybrids. The two measurements of tail length at autopsy and by X-ray photos were almost identical (R2=0.98). The range of relative tail length (standardized by the crown rump length, %) was as wide as 18.3– 95.5 % (average 49.3%), covering the averages of pure Mc and Mf, 95% and 15%, respectively. The average number of caudal vertebrae was 16.2 (range: 8 – 24), which correlates well with relative tail length (R2=0.82). Thus, a diverse degree of hybridization has already occurred. A preliminary analysis showed that the relative tail length strongly correlates with the degree of hybridization evaluated from genetics (Kawamoto in the present symposium). Therefore, the tail length is a good indicator of the degree of hybridization between Mc and Mf. Two Cases of Hybridization
between Macaca nemestrina and Macaca fascicularis in the Temple
Sites, Thailand Tamaki
Maruhashi Faculty
of Human and Cultural Sciences, Musashi University, Tokyo In this report I show the two cases of
hybridization between Macaca nemestrina and Macaca fascicularis
in the temple sites. I had a chance to visit nine primates sites for one month
from 20 Aril to 20 May, 2007 by the arrangements by Drs. Suchinda
Malaivijitnond and Yuzuru Hamada. I found the hybridization in What Tham Kham,
Sakon Nakhon where I stayed from 3 May to 7 May and in Wattham Purtakhion,
Chumphon from 13 May to 17 May. In What Tham Kham, one troop was fed
artificially. In the parking area the shop persons sell the food for monkeys
and the children of the shops controlled and protected the tourists against the
monkeys. The troop size was over 150 animals and it is difficult to detect its
detailed age-sex composition for few days. The maximum number counted in one
march was 142 individuals and 22 babies, totally, 164 animals. In the case of
the maximum, the composition was 52 females, 8 adult males, 20 young adult
males, 53 juveniles, 22 babies, and 9 unidentified animals. Some estimated hybrid monkeys were found between
Macaca nemestrina and Maraca fascicularis by the tail-length and
some mixed morphological features in the age-sex class of juvenile, young
males, and adult females. I could not find the hybrid individuals among the
eight full adult males. In Wat Tham Purtakhion, Chumphon, one troop of Macaca
nemestrina and one troop of dusky langurs Trachypithecus obscurus
were found in this small area. For the pig-tailed macaques, three records of
identifying the animalsf age-sex classes in march were got; 46 animals on 13
May, 57 animals 0n 14 May, and 42 animals on 17 May, 2007. The composition of
the case of the maximum number was 21 young adult and adult females, 1 adult
male and 8 young adult males, and 21 juveniles, and one baby. Only one adult male estimated over 13 years old
were found and this male was the first ranking male which is really the hybrid
individual, estimated between Macaca nemestrina and M. fascicularis.
Among the juveniles some animals had longer tail than the usual of the normal
pig-tailed monkeys. But we need more information about the growth data of the
tail length during the juvenile period. This first ranking male is a very interesting
material to study the genetically based sexual behaviors of the two species in
comparison with these non-hybrid alpha malesf sexual behaviors. The other males
were all younger than the first ranking male. The second ranking male seemed to
be a non-hybrid individual. The hybrid alpha male attracted the four estrous
females around this male. The females presented to the male and some females
got the copulation and ejaculation of the male. In the video, I show such
estimated hybrid animals and sexual behaviors. Between
the genus Macaca species, rare hybridization incidences were reported in
the natural situation, however, in the artificial situations some incidences
were found. The dispersion of the hybrid animals toward the natural populations
will result in deep impacts for the conservation. I propose some minimum rules
should be designed to such areas where the monkeys are inhabiting. Special lecture at the Primate Research Institute on 18th February 2008
The Role of Grooming in Macaque Social MarketsMichael D. GumertDivision of Psychology,School of Humanities and Social Sciences,
Nanyang Technological University, Nanyang Avenue, Singapore, 639798Ph: (65) 6514-1094
ABSTRACT: Macaque society is characterized by
frequent grooming and other forms of social interaction. Grooming patterns are closely associated
with kinship and dominance, but not all grooming is accounted for by these
factors. Grooming is known to
serve hygienic functions, but it is also widely documented for its role in
social relationships, such as maintenance and formation of social bonds,
reconciliation, and social exchange. Social markets, where macaques use grooming to gain access to
social resources, may explain some grooming. Grooming may allow a macaque to be tolerated, access an
infant, engage in sexual activity, or coordinate other forms of social trade
with their partner. A market
perspective postulates that grooming coordinates trades for social resources
and that such trades are influenced by the current economic conditions in a
social market. Research on a group of long-tailed macaques (Macaca
fascicularis) in Kalimantan Tengah, Indonesia yielded support that some
grooming is related to social trades and that these trades are influenced by
social markets. Data was collected
on grooming reciprocity and interchange with tolerance across age-sex classes. In addition, data from grooming
interchanges with infant handling in female-female pairs and grooming
interchanges with sexual activity in male-female pairs was obtained. Grooming was found to coordinate social trade
through several mechanisms. First,
grooming increased the tolerance a grooming receiver exhibited towards their
partner. Second, grooming increased
the likelihood that a receiver would preferentially engage in social activity
with their groomer. Finally, the
duration of grooming invested by the initial groomer during interchanges with
sexual activity and infant handling was related to partner supply and
competitor demand. These results
support a biological market interpretation of social exchange. Grooming coordinates social trades and
it appears to be an investment in a partner because the amount of grooming
given is related to the economic conditions in which the trade occurred. @ |